Just War Essay - 1166 Words

Just War In general, war is a very controversial and complicated series of events, but war still is a very sad last resort for humans. The statistics of how bloody and dreadful war can show the gruesomeness of this act. In armed conflicts since 1945, ninety percent of casualties have been civilians compared to fifty percent in the Second World War and ten percent in the First. The planning and execution of war remains controlled by men, but women and children are the main victims of violence in war. 160 million people died in wars during the 20th century. One can prove whether a war is worth fighting for, or is just, by the war meeting certain conditions. The war must be for a just cause. A lawful authority must declare the war. The†¦show more content†¦The power as well as the precision of modern means of destruction weighs very heavily in evaluating this condition.† Jus in bello believes that just war conduct should be governed by the ‘distinction’. The acts of war should be directed towards enemy combatants, and not towards non-combatants caught in circumstances they did not create. The prohibited acts include bombing civilian homes or residential areas that include no military targets and committing acts of terrorism against civilians. Moreover, combatants are not permitted to use violence against enemy combatants who have surrendered or who have been captured or who are injured and not presenting an immediate threat to life. Just war conduct should also be governed by the principle of proportionality. An attack cannot be launched on a military objective while knowing that the civilian injuries would be so much that the military advantage would not be worth it. Minimal force or military necessity should be taken into account during a just war. An attack or action must be intended to help in the military defeat of the enemy, it must be an attack on a military objective, and the harm caused to civilians or civilian property must be proportional and not excessive in relation to the known and directShow MoreRelated just war Essay2036 Words   |  9 Pages One of the oldest traditions in religious ethics is that of the just war. The quot;Just War Theoryquot; specifies under which conditions war is just. Opposition based on the Just War Theory differs from that of pacifists. Oppositionists oppose particular wars but not all war. Their opposition is based on principals of justice rather than principles of pacifism (Becker 926). In the monotheistic religious traditions of Christianity and Islam, one role of God (or Allah) is to limit or control aggressionsRead MoreEssay on The Just War Doctrine964 Words   |  4 PagesWar, in all its forms, is tragic. International law was created to establish some basis of rules to abide by—including war—and states have signed on to such a contract. The actions of states in this ever globalizing world are difficult to be controlled. The source of international law operates through the hands of the United Nations. The enforcement of the law occurs through reciprocity, collective action, and a display of international norms (Goldstein, p. 254). War in fact has been given a justificationRead MoreThe Just War Theory Essay1299 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is the Just War theory and how did it pertain to St. Augustine? According to Augustine there is no private right to kill. According to Paul Ramsey opposes in The Just War, Christian participation in warfare â€Å" was not actually an exception to the commandment, â€Å"you shall not murder† but instead an expression of the Christian understanding of moral and political responsibility. One can kill only under the authority of God. St. Augustine argued that Christian rulers had such an obligation to makeRead More Just War Theory Essay3745 Words   |  15 PagesJust War Theory Price reduced due to problems with format One of the perennial realities of human existence is war. From the earliest recorded events of human history all the way through to modern times, human communities have engaged in armed conflict as a method of dispute resolution. While war has been a constant part of the human experience, there has also been a tendency within virtually all human civilisations to limit the extent of war and the methods by which warfare may be conductedRead More Just War and Pacifism Essay1892 Words   |  8 Pages The question Can war be justified? plagued mankind since the first war. The Just War Theory holds that war can be just. The theory has evolved for thousands of years and modern theorists, such as Michael Walzer, author of Just and Unjust Wars, puts forth criteria for a just war, such as jus ad bellum and jus in bello. Jus ad bellum includes reasons for going to war, and jus in bello deals with the people who wage war. The criteria in jus ad bellum include; just cause, declaration by a properRead More Terrorism and the Just War Tradition Essay1055 Words   |  5 PagesTerrorism and the Just War Tradition       It ´s important, at the outset, to understand what the just-war tradition is, and isn ´t. The just-war tradition is not an algebra that provides custom-made, clear-cut answers under all circumstances. Rather, it is a kind of ethical calculus, in which moral reasoning and rigorous empirical analysis are meant to work together, in order to provide guidance to public authorities on whom the responsibilities of decision-making fall. This essay will study theRead MoreA Twentieth Century War Was Just and a Holy War Essay497 Words   |  2 PagesCentury War Was Just and a Holy War On 2nd September 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany. Wars are started for many reasons, but can they ever be justified? This essay will analyse whether the factors causing the Second World War were justified. Augstine, a Christian leader in the Middle Ages, devised the Just War Theory. The Christian thinker Thomas Aquinas then adapted this theory, which then formed the basis of the UN conditions for a just war. To Read MoreEssay on Just War Doctrine And The Gulf Conflict1275 Words   |  6 Pages Just War Doctrine and the Gulf Conflict nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In evaluating US involvement in the Iraq conflict in terms of the Just War Doctrine - jus ad bellum and jus in bello - it is my opinion that the US adhered to the Doctrine in its entirety. The US acted justly both in its entering into the Gulf conflict (jus ad bellum) and in its conduct while in the conflict (jus in bello). To support this opinion I will individually address the co parts that constitute the Just War DoctrineRead MoreEssay about Christianity And The Just War Theory668 Words   |  3 Pages Does the Just War Theory provide sufficient moral justification for Christians’ involvement in war? The Just War Theory is a set of criteria that are used to judge whether a war is morally justifiable. It was St Augustine in the third century that formulated the Just War theory, and was formalised 10 centuries later by Thomas Aquinas. There are seven criteria by which a war can be judged to be just. Among the rules are Just Cause – there must be a very good reason for going to war, such as protectingRead MoreCritically Discuss Augustines Distinction Between Just and Unjust Wars1154 Words   |  5 PagesAugustine is highly acclaimed as the originator of the Just War theory. He founded a concept that would be built upon for many years to come. Augustine argued that war was sometimes sadly an unfortunate necessity to preserve order in society. He believed that wars should only be undertaken if they satisfy a certain criteria for a just war. McCellend notes how ‘the original condition of mans soul was innocence but since the Fall the soul has been tainted and is thus i ncapable of achieving goodness

Argumentative Essay On Columbus Day - 1400 Words

#8577424 Argumentative Essay AP English 4B/ Jenkins October 3rd, 2017 Columbus Day: Celebrating Genocide, Rape, and Enslavement Since 1492 Columbus Day! The second Monday in October. A day celebrating Christopher Columbus, which everyone rejoices because no work! A cherished day off. However, keep in mind what we are celebrating on this day. The man who this day honors, celebrates, glorifies, is no hero. He did not discover America. He was not, in any way, a person who should be respected or honored. In celebrating Columbus Day, we are celebrating a man whose true legacy is of genocide, rape, and enslavement. We need to no longer celebrate Columbus Day as a country because it glorifies a murderer and tyrant who not only directly†¦show more content†¦They do not bear arms, and do not know them†¦ They would make fine servants†¦. With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.† (Halper, Katie). Columbus accepted the natives kindness and greetings and came to the conclusion that beca use of this gratitude, he could enslave them and make them bend to his will. Columbus not only enslaved, he also permitted and even encouraged the rape of the native women. An entry from his childhood friend and one of his men, Michele da Guneo, writes in a letter â€Å"While I was in the boat, I captured a very beautiful Carib woman, whom the said Lord Admiral (Columbus) gave to me. I was filled with a desire to take my pleasure with her and attempted to satisfy my desire. She was unwilling, and so treated me with her nails that I wished I had never begun. But—to cut a long story short—I then took a piece of rope and whipped her soundly, and she let forth such incredible screams that you would not have believed your ears.† (Halper, Katie) Columbus and his men also participated in the gruesome slaughter of the indigenous people. One passage from the priest who accompanied Columbus on his conquest of Cuba, Bartolome de las Casas, details these atrocities. He wrot e, â€Å"And they (the Christians) began to carry out massacres and strange cruelties against them. They attacked the towns and spared neither the children nor the agedShow MoreRelatedArgumentative Essay On Christopher Columbus Day1630 Words   |  7 PagesIn 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean and discovered what we now know as the Americas†¦ or so it’s been taught. In all actuality, there were already Native people who had been living in the continents for thousands of years. Since 1937, the US has used this â€Å"discovery† as a holiday known as Columbus Day to celebrate a man who established the beginning of colonization of the New World. While Columbus did begin the colonization of the Americas, he was not the one who discovered them. HistoryRead MoreOF MICE AND MEN ESSAY Libre2222 Words   |  9 PagesOf Mice And Men Essay Of mice and men essay State of California. essay writers salt lake city research paper writing chattanooga buy college ruled paper. Of mice and men essay Metis-sur-Mer of mice and men essay Columbus, Leicestershire, Palmdale, Bakersfield of mice and men essay san antonio write essay for me, of mice and men essay Alexandria uploading essay to common app, Chester of mice and men essay Norfolk geometry and algebra 1 formula sheet Of mice and men essay State of Rhode Island andRead MoreJake Carlson. Cullen, Engc 1101-33. Argumentative Essay.1370 Words   |  6 PagesJake Carlson Cullen, ENGC 1101-33 Argumentative Essay 03/19/2017 1376 word count The United States’ Admission of Guilt for the Invasion of Native American Land Americans hunted, imprisoned, raped, and murdered Native Americans. Cherokees surviving the onslaught were forced on a 1,00-mile march to the established Indian Territory with few provisions. Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died on this â€Å"Trail of Tears†. (Library of Congress 1) In the 16th century Europeans began to make appearances in NorthRead MoreDiscourse on Method Essay example3627 Words   |  15 Pagesis the natural sciences; and autobiography provides its narrativization or tale (12). In inventing a counter-Cartesian (11), Discourse against Method (12) Ulmer proposes a very different CATTt. The new method contrasts conventional argumentative writing; Stanislavskis method acting is its analogous figure; Jacques Derrida provides the theoretical underpinnings; the production of texts in hyper-media is the targetted application; and the cinema remake provides its means of representation(39)Read MoreInclusion Of Fiji And Why It Is Agreeable By Supporting The Argument With Evidence2049 Words   |  9 Pageslikely to be looked at as a lower status then men. Furthermore, as a result women in the South Pacific have been facing inequality. In addition, women have started to accept that male are superior and they have to right to command and abuse. This essay will discuss the above statement with references to Fiji and why it is agreeable by supporting the argument with evidence. To begin with, women stay home and look after their kids while men look for employment opportunities (Ravuvu 1983, 2010). ThisRead MoreArgumentative Essay - Foreign Language2587 Words   |  11 PagesKatie Rudnik Instructor McClary English 102:027 20 November 2014 Researched Argumentative Essay – Foreign Language in the United States With the development of technology, improvement of transportation, and expansion of social media, globalization is occurring faster than ever. Now more than ever, companies are looking to expand internationally and employers are looking to hire multilingual employees. Because of this, the study of foreign language plays a critical role in the ever-expanding globalRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pagesinformation looking to reinforce existing views rather than to accept the view that is backed up with the better argument, our course is designed to combat this tendency. Facing a Decision as a Critical Thinker Imagine this situation. You are on a four-day backpacking trip in a national wilderness area with your friends Juanita and Emilio. The summer weathers great, the scenery is exotic, and youve been having a good time. Yesterday you drove several hours into the area and parked in the main parkingRead MoreProject Managment Case Studies214937 Words   |  860 PagesApache Metals, Inc. 160 Haller Specialty Manufacturing 162 The NF3 Project: Managing Cultural Differences 163 An International Project Manager s Day (A) 172 An International Project Manager s Day (B) (see handout provided by instructor) An International Project Manager s Day (C) (see handout provided by instructor) An International Project Manager s Day (D) (see handout provided by instructor) Ellen Moore (A): Living and Working in Korea 177 Ji nan Broadcasting Corporation 196 4 PROJECT MANAGEMENTRead MoreLibrary Management204752 Words   |  820 Pagessubunits or functions, also serve as liaisons between top management and supervisors. †¢ The managers in the lowest position of the management hierarchy are supervisors, sometimes called first-line managers. First-line managers or supervisors lead the day-to-day activities of individual employees as they work to accomplish the desired organizational objectives, and they are responsible for the production of goods or services. These managers implement procedures and processes that allow their units to workRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pageslearn and to review in order to succeed. Visit www.mymanagementlab.com to learn more. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS EIGHTH EDITION David A. Whetten BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY Kim S. Cameron UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Editor

The Impact of Public Policies on Young Voters Free Essays

On December 21, 1970, the Supreme Court of the United States made a decision that would drastically affect the lives of many yong adults/ By a vote of five to four, the Court declared that eighteen year olds could vote in National Elections provided they meet the normal requirements of citizenship, residency, and registration issued by their homes states (Mitchell 1). This was a great step for youths in both political and nonpolitical aspects in the way that it shows responsibility and awareness in our society. Since the majority of those affected by this policy are either in school or full time members of the woking field, they will likely recieve a lower income, therefore feeling the impact of the rising cost of living and education. We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact of Public Policies on Young Voters or any similar topic only for you Order Now Public policies have a great impact on the eitheen to twenty year old voters. For example, economic policies affecting their basic life chances and policies regarding their lifestyle and personal liberties. By its policies, government can grant or deny substantial benefits to young workers and students. Likewise, it can impose heavy burdens and controls such as budget cuts. These cuts could cause state legislators to reduce spending on education and increase tuition and/or fees. That could cause great controversy among youth who depend on government funds to better their education, possibly setting back their efforts. Since the erly 1900’s, youth have shown leadership by expressing their ideas and opinions with strong and persuasive actions, many of which contribute to their awareness and impact on society today. For example, if our government can trust our youth to be mature and capable of enlisting in the military at the age of eighteen, then they are mature enough to vote as to who the commander in chief will be. If one is considered capable of scarificing thier life for the lives of America by handling both the mental and physical burdens brought by war, then one should be capable of deciding their own factors of life. There are also many downsides to a fresh group of voters. For example, manyt youths may not choose or qualify to vote. Since some of the youth come from lower classs, they will most likely be unable to pass the qualifications in reading or other catagories because of the lack of basic education. If a youth comes from a family of wealth, odds are their family will greatly influence their choice in elections on if they vote democratic or republic (Mitchell 3). As citizens of the United States, the constituiton allows us the right to vote when we are eighteen. To depel of this right, legislatures would have to pass a bill in the house of representatives and have that bill ratified in the senate to repeal the ammendment. This would have profound effects on the population, especially among the sector of the population who falls in the age caegories of 18 and 20. This would cause major riots and extreme outbreaks that would be non-beneficial to the government. However, to fail to vote in the interest of protecting their rights and benefits, or to change it by incluuding other benefits, des not seem wise. The ability to vote is a great advantage if used correctly. If one qualifies for the ability to vote it is to their advantage to voice their opinions in order that they might make a chang. The ability to vote opens doors for many changes and profressions. By including a more divers representation of people, we will have a better and stronger government. Including views from the yound and old to the rich and poor, we will b able to better understand the people of America. For a government to run properly, it should represent all of its people and not just a select group. By allowing our youth th be capable of the responsiblity to votem we are slowly taking a step forward to this unity amongst our government. In an effort to get Americans involved with the political process, we should make every effort to educate Americans in the ways of politics. Since yout is, of all age groups, the most flesible and able to learn, 18 is the perfect age to begin the molding of a new, political mind. With the ability to vote, we can voice our opinions on taxes and wages along with other things sicj as entertainment and clothign, all which may effect our lives on a daily basis. With the ability to speak out in a sophisticated, mature matter, with a vote, one’s chances of being heard is greater. How to cite The Impact of Public Policies on Young Voters, Papers

His 135 Week 9 Final Project free essay sample

History 135 Week 9 Final Project: â€Å"The Most Significant Events†: When most people are taught about U. S. history, we think of mostly the bad times like the wars, the civil rights movements, President Kennedy’s and M. L. King Jr’s associations, just to name a few. In this paper I will discuss those and more going into the start of the 21st century. The previous five decades consisting of the 1950s into the millennium happened during the U. S. History equally turbulent, but exciting. There also were numerous transformations within social, governmental, plus technological sections, but the WWII era currently seems rather prehistoric. Since the 1950s America has experienced major cultural transformations, starting with four main military disagreements, accelerated technological advancements, new but dangerous diseases, also one president resigns from office instead of facing impeachment or prison, then collapse to the Soviet Union, also numerous economic challenges. The United States was winning the WWII war, also some ensuing economic growth and political circumstances forced the United States in the spotlight. America had money and predictably assisted other countries, while developing their own troubles on the home front, increasing troubles socially plus economically. Numerous big trends happened throughout the 1950’s, ranging from the Cold War amidst America and the Soviet Union grew, and then the Korean War brought America to a new global war, although tensions intensified in â€Å"Egypt with the Suez Canal disaster,† and the Cuban Revolution between Castro and the people, then the United States went through some confused moments with the Anti-Communist viewpoints, and the Senator J. McCarthy’s allegations. (Halberstam, 1994). The Civil Rights Movement, in the 1950s, did have some rather impressive improvements. These improvements occurred not because of an individual person or single group, but of a movement that seemed to unite and solidify even through adversity. Possibly it was the best time cause, Blacks had served in World War II, exposing some White Americans to race issues for the first time; the country was centered on anti-communism, so race may have taken a back seat. It is also important to remember that it was not only brave African Americans who led the fight for justice, but college students and religious leaders of many races. In fact, these activities often employed legal challenges, civil protests, and other initiatives to bring the issue of racism into the living rooms of middle-class Americans. Not every African Americans agreed with the manner in which the struggle should be made: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr was a primary advocate of peaceful change† reasonable dialog, and taking the arguments of Thoreau and Gandhi to heart. King believed if enough people purposely broke, albeit peacefully, unjust laws and actions, those laws would fail. (Morris,1986, 30-44, 58-89). In contrast, though, as millions of African Americans migrated from the rural South to the North and West seeking new and better jobs, they demanded higher pay and a more democratic systems. This, combined with more mechanization of agriculture in the South, moved the African American into wider dispersion throughout the country. It is also interesting to note that most Americans and politicians supported the decolonization of the African nations and equal government and rights for those populations but then in their own backyard had differing views. Legal challenges were plentiful with the largely recognized was the 1954 verdict on Brown versus Board of Education, and the U. S. Supreme Court administered â€Å"segregated schools unconstitutional. † In refusing anyone the right to an education, the Court said, many institutions in the South were refusing basic Constitutional rights guaranteed by the 14th Amendment. (See: http://brownvboard. org/summary). Although, the ruling was a major victory, when, in 1957 the Little Rock Arkansas School District was commanded to desegregate; and its Governor Fabus refused, arguing that the States had the right to administer their schools. In the Fall of 1957, Fabus called out the National Guard to prevent African Americans from entering Little Rock High School and media coverage in its infancy, and Americans were not surprised to seeing white adults in crowds attacking Black children. As the world’s eyes are observing the United States and President Eisenhower desperate to regain control over the U. S. , and Federal Troops were called in to protect African Americans, and Governor Fabus closed the schools in 1958 and 1959. Still, the Movement accentuated the idea of peaceful coexistence and the establishment of legal authority for members of all races. What maybe made the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s so significant is not essentially what battles were won but what training had been done as the decade drew to a close. (Jackson, 2006). If the 1950s were traditional politically, and filled with media images of the perfect family, despite the turmoil of the Civil Rights Movement, the 1960s were anything but peaceful. The 1960s were especially unique in that so many children had been born in the years after WWII that now, in the 60s, they were becoming of age, thus the 60s are also known as the Age of Youth. Several general trends characterize the era: a vast counterculture and social revolution, typically youth rebelling like never before; increased attention to civil rights, feminism, the Vietnam War and the anti-war movement at home; more prevalence of illegal drugs; increasing tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union and China; new experiments in music, dance, and the arts; and several international and national assassinations that changed the course of political history. This was also the era of vast social and political upheavals, riots, demonstrations, sit-ins, opt outs, and a clear counter culture that turned away from mainstream materialism and into a new sexual revolution questioning authority, societies, government, and demanding more freedoms and rights for women, minorities, sexual minorities, and above all, the end of the Vietnam War. (Gitlin,1993). As the world’s eyes are observing the United States and President Eisenhower who was desperate to regain control over the States, Federal Troops were chosen in to protect African Americans, and Governor Fabus closed the schools in 1958 and 1959. Still, the Movement accentuated the idea of peaceful coexistence and the establishment of legal authority for members of all races. What possibly made the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s so important is not necessarily what battles were won but what preparations were made as the decade drew to a close. (Jackson, 2006). If the 1950s were conservative politically, and filled with media images of the perfect family, despite the turmoil of the Civil Rights Movement, the 1960s were anything but peaceful. The 1960s were especially unique in that so many children had been born in the years after WWII that now, in the 60s, they ere becoming of age, thus the 60s are also known as the Age of Youth. Several general trends characterize the era: a vast counterculture and social revolution, typically youth rebelling like never before; increased attention to civil rights, feminism, the new left, and the Latino and Chicano movement; the Vietnam War and the anti-war movement at home; more prevale nce of illegal drugs; increasing tensions between the West and the Soviet Bloc and China; new experiments in music, dance, and the arts; and several international and national assassinations that changed the course of political history. This was also the era of vast social and political upheavals, riots, demonstrations, sit-ins, opt outs, and a clear counter culture that turned away from mainstream materialism and into a new sexual revolution questioning authority, societies, government, and demanding more freedoms and rights for women, minorities, sexual minorities, and above all, the end of the Vietnam War (Gitlin,1993). Though for numerous people, it was the Vietnam War, roughly 1959-1975 that characterized the 1960s. The history of the war is complex, but essentially the conflict was fought between South Vietnam, and North Vietnam. The war was essentially a guerilla war fought between pro and anti-communist forces. The problem was who could tell who was communist and who was not. The United States and its allies entered the war under the pretence of preventing the takeover of South Vietnam as part of a wider strategy to contain communism. Some planners at the time used the analogy the domino effect to describe what they believed would happen if one country after another fell to community rule. An instance of what was forecasted was complicated by President Eisenhower as early in 1954; â€Å"Finally, you have broader considerations that might follow what you would call the falling domino principle. You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly. So you could have a beginning of a disintegration that would have the most profound influences. † (Domino theory, news conference,1954) As the war had accelerated throughout the early part of presidency of John F. Kennedy, possibly was appropriate to his view that unless a strong ine was drawn, the Soviet Union would continue to exert its authority and power. Though, the quality of the South Vietnamese military was poor, and unlike the North Vietnamese military, had corruption, poor leadership, and an incompetent government made it all but impossible to fight a modern war with any hope of winning (McNamara, 1996, 3-20). A fter the assignation of President Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson was more disturbed with issues at home, his Great Society than the war in Asia. Of course, though, the war intensified, demanding increasingly extra American troops and dollars to be sent to the area and escalation throughout the decade. In November 1967 General Westmoreland focused his efforts on a public relations tour to bolster support for the War, but found the public apathetic at best no one could really understand the reason for a war in Southeast Asia, let alone understand a war that seemed as if American was not really trying to win. (McNamara,1996,45-90). Culturally, still the effects on the U. S. social framework were great deals. The Army became almost demoralized, some generals saying, we never knew our friends or our enemies. Tactics became a political basketball, and the success rate was low even at the best of times. Veterans returning to the U. S. after duty were rarely celebrated, and believed they had been alienated from their country and confused regarding why they had even been in Vietnam. Again, even Henry Kissinger noted that the U. S. military was not really suited to this kind of war. Similarly, the financial burden of the War called political judgment into question; doubts were rife about the tactics, and ever decision was analyzed on the nightly news, with most Americans believing that we simply did not belong there, (Davidson, 1991). More than anything, the Vietnam War emphasized what was wrong on the home front and that a superpower was not always a superpower tremendous might would not always prevail. From the turbulent 60s we move into the confusing 1970s a decade of change, healing, economic downturns, dishonesty at the highest stages of government, greater dependence on foreign steel and oil, but a more mature focus on political and social equality. Japans economy boomed but much of the West, heavily dependent upon Arab oil, suffered an economic recession. Vietnam was finally ended; with a peace accord that left little doubt America did not win the war. The U. S. became entangled in the conflicts in the Middle East but could not really get its own house in order. Environmentalism, Feminism, and even more focus on Civil Rights were part of this decade, with many positive steps in integrating women and minorities into previously closed aspects of society. The counterculture was aging, and there was still a great deal of discontent, both America and Europe were moving to the Right politically and culturally (Burns, 2005). The Presidential Crisis of Richard Nixon, which seemed to shape the way the world viewed America in the 1970s. The so-called Watergate Affair encompassed a number of secret, and illegal, activities sanctioned by President Nixon or his aids. In brief, Nixon hired some underlings to break into the Democratic Party Headquarters on June 17, 1972. They were tasked to gather secret information to be used against the Democrats in the upcoming election. Watergate despite, became a figure of the numerous scandals that were uncovered by reporters from â€Å"The Washing Post† and numerous newspapers. Nixon, of course, downplayed the scandal, but when tapes of conversations were found, it became clear that Nixon himself had accepted illegal campaign contributions, and had harassed opponents with Presidential powers, and abused his position in office as well as his duty toward the Constitution. (Stans, 1978). Nixon continued to deny his involvement, stating to the nation in November, 1973: â€Å"People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook. Well, I’m not a crook. I’ve earned everything I’ve got. †( Kilpatrick,1973-11-18). Nixon Tells Editors, Im Not a Crook. (The Washington Post, 1973) Nevertheless, in May 1974, the Congressional House Judiciary Committee opened public impeachment hearing against President Nixon. Practical to the end, Nixon realized he had lost political and public support, and that it was certain he would be impeached and likely convicted and imprisoned. Instead, he resigned the Presidency on August 9, 2974, after making an impassionate television address to the public. Nixon never admitted to any wrongdoing, but later said he might have had errors in judgment. (Kutler, 1992: 167-72). As a result of Watergate, Nixon was disbarred by the State of New York, and because he would admit no wrongdoing, he resigned all his law licenses. On September 8, 1974, however, he was pardoned unconditionally by his successor, President Gerald Ford, thus ending any possibility of a future indictment. The pardon was, of course, quite controversial and many claimed it was part of a secret deal made in payment for Nixon’s resignation. The 1980s are now known as the Age of Reagan Conservatism, after the two terms in office of Ronald Reagan, former Hollywood actor and Governor of California. Globally, economies boomed, both production and Western culture moved to the 2nd and 3rd worlds, while the Western democracies saw a huge revival of conservatism with Margaret Thatcher in Britain, Reagan in the United States, Helmut Kohl in German, and Brian Mulroney in Canada. Yes, there was war in the Middle East, and the Arab-Israeli conflict continued. In China, reformers protested in Tiananmen Square, in the USSR a new policy of openness was popularized by Gorbachev, and in Eastern Europe a succession of dictatorial regimes toppled due to lack of financial support from the USSR. In fact, may social historians believe that one of the legacies of the Reagan years was his insistence upon military spending to literally bankrupt the Russian economy (White, 1999). But it was not just Reagan’s foreign policy that characterized this era. Instead, a now popular term called Reaganomics’ has come to be the epitome of the U. S. economy in the 1980s. There are four major pillars of this plan, which was designed to cut back on domestic spending and increase military funding. ) Reduce any non-military governmental spending, 2) Reduce tax rates on income from labor and capital, 3) Reduce governmental regulation on the economy, and 4) Control the money supply and reduce inflation. (Wilentz, 2008: 174). The legacy of the Reagan years showed that when he became president the country was experiencing a high rate of inflation and unemployment by the time he left office, the economy was stimulated, unemployment down, inflation down but, the national debt tripled, leaving also a legacy of debt (Greenspan,2007). Transitioning from the legacy of Reagan, one of the seminal events of the 1990s was the Fall of the Soviet Union, the Eastern Communists, and the end of the Cold War. America made huge leaps technologically, free-market capitalism was now common in more developing countries; racial and gender prejudice became the exception, and, after 165 of British Colonial Rule, Hong Kong was transferred to the jurisdiction of the People’s Republic of China. United States was involved in the 1991 Gulf War, as well as the North American Free Trade Agreement of 1994 creating a free trade zone encompassing Canada, the United States, and Mexico. The dominant political figure of the 1990s in America was Bill Clinton, and his attempts to broker peace in the Middle East, in the former Yugoslavia, and a focus on globalization left America in a world-leadership role once again. (Kallen,1998). It was, though, the end of the Cold War that finally cemented the move toward greater globalization, peace and prosperity, and less of a focus on militarization and the climate of fear. In brief, by the time Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1985, the Soviet economy was stagnant, if not in shambles. He realized he needed to do deep structural changes, but also knew that he needed to move towards peace with the U. S. , and a lessened burden on the Soviet GNP for spending on the military. Through a series of summit talks, the arms race was scaled back, and by 1989 the Soviet alliance system had collapsed, Poland became free, and the era of communism was officially over when the USSR was officially dissolved on Christmas Day 1991 (Gaddis,1994). The legacy of the Cold War, however, remains with us even today. Countless billions of dollars and millions of lives were shed in the name of protecting the Communism, Socialism, Capitalism. Without a doubt, the politics of post-World War II helped define America’s policeman role in world politics, and even in 1989 had military alliances with over 50 countries and 1. 5 million troops posted in 117 countries (Gaddis, 1994). While there has been a new era of economic growth and partnership with the West in some former communist countries, the Russian Republic continues to face challenges with its ethnic minorities, its criminal element, and deciding its place in the world. The question now people are asking is if the world will make it through the year of 2010 and then into year 2012. Some futurologists predicting the future say that if we live past 2012 and beyond are very uncertain. Certainly, the rapidity of technological change will continue to have a major impact both in America and abroad. The conflicts in the Middle East have depended, and seem to have stagnated with no end in sight. It will be imperative that the United States divest itself from dependence on foreign oil, and thus the need to be constantly involved in the affairs of he Middle East. Cyclically, it appears that America is headed for a recessionary period huge amounts of credit card and bad-real estate debt have crippled the economy, as well as placed resources in very precarious positions. That said, however, we are on the brink of possibly electing the first African American President, we have a female Speaker of the House, and numerous racial, sexual, and ethnic minorities in high positions in the military, government, and private sector. As we have seen, the one constant is change, and change we will perhaps not in the direction futurists describe but clearly, in a rapid direction of egalitarianism and a philosophy of global cooperation. 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These References are not in the complete order of â€Å"APA† style. ) I received a grade point of 240 for this paper for the course of â€Å"HIS/135. † Complete course description: â€Å"The American Experience Since 1945 (AXIA). †